Case studies: Lundstrom and Olsson’s (2005), Hare et al. (2007), Cutler et al. (1998)
Pheromone is an umbrella term for various forms of chemical communications. Think of it as bodily secretions that smell attractive to the opposite sex. Yep, body odor.
Pheromones influence mammal’s mating behavior, for example, if a male rhesus monkey cannot sense pheromones signaling fertility, he will ignore the
romantic attention of a female, (Hertz, 2009).
In animals, pheromones are processed by a structure termed the vomeronasal organ. However humans do not have the VNO or an accessory olfactory bulb that is connected to the VNO.
Human fetuses have olfactory bulb but it regresses and disappears afterbirth.
Does pheromones affect human behaviour? So far, inconclusive.
Lundstrom and Olsson’s (2005)
Lundstrom and Olsson’s (2005) research delved into the impact of androstadienone, a chemical found in sweat, particularly derived from testosterone. They discovered that this compound elevated the mood of women when a male experimenter was present but showed no effect with a female experimenter.
| Strengths | Weaknesses |
| – Study explores a unique and specific scenario, providing insights into how subtle chemical signals can influence social interactions – The study’s findings can generate hypotheses for further research and potentially inform practical applications, such as understanding social dynamics or designing interventions for mood regulation | – Ecological validity issues due to the high concentration of pheromones used, making it challenging to discern the effects of the pheromone from those of the experimenter – Ethical concerns arose regarding participants being asked to smell pads saturated with donor armpit sweat |
Pheromone is also known to signal gender and result in reproductive-relevant behaviors like mate perception. However if it does not signal gender then it will not produce gender-related effects nor can it be said to be a “sex pheromone”. Hare et al. (2007) study below will show a failure to “prove” that pheromones signal gender.
Hare et al. (2007)
In a study by Hare et al. (2007), heterosexual Caucasian participants engaged in computer-based tasks over two days, including reporting the gender of gender-neutral faces and rating opposite-sex faces for attractiveness and perceived sexual unfaithfulness. On one day they were exposed to a control scent, while on the other, they encountered a pheromone (EST). Results showed no significant effect of pheromone exposure on attractiveness or unfaithfulness ratings, aligning with previous research suggesting that AND and EST are unlikely human pheromones.
| Strengths | Weaknesses |
| – A controlled experimental design, it allowed for systematic manipulation of variables such as scent exposure and behavioral responses to infer cause and effect – Additionally, the study used computer-based tasks, which can provide precise and standardized measures of participant responses – Moreover, consecutive testing days and comparison of control and pheromone exposure conditions enhances the reliability of the findings | – Limited generalizability of results due to the specific demographic of participants (heterosexual Caucasian individuals) – Additionally, the use of self-reported measures for attractiveness and perceived sexual unfaithfulness may introduce bias or inaccuracies in data collection |
Despite Hare’s study as showing that pheromones do not result in gender-related effects, Cutler found that exposure to pheromone can heighten one’s sociosexual behavior.
Cutler et al. (1998)
Cutler examined the impact of pheromones on sociosexual behavior in 38 heterosexual men aged 26-42. They underwent a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial with a pheromone purported to enhance romance.
Daily behavioral records over six weeks revealed that pheromone users exhibited increased petting, affection, and informal dates compared to placebo users. However, there was no notable change in masturbation or formal dating behaviors. While these findings require further replication, they suggest that male pheromones may influence sexual attractiveness to women in sociosexual contexts.
| Strengths | Weaknesses |
| – Longitudinal design, which allowed for the assessment of changes in behavior over time and the comparison of pheromone users with a placebo control group | – Potential placebo effects, as participants were aware of their pheromone usage and its purported purpose – Reliance on self-reported behavioral data introduces the possibility of social desirability bias or inaccuracies in reporting – Moreover, the limited sample size and specific demographic characteristics of the participants (heterosexual men aged 26-42) may restrict the generalizability of the findings to broader populations. |
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