Where classical conditioning explains how we learn through stimulus association, operant conditioning explains how we learn through consequences.

In operant conditioning, experience comes through trial and error — we try something, see what happens, and adjust our behavior accordingly. Over time, behavior becomes more likely (stronger) if followed by a reward, and less likely (weaker) if followed by something unpleasant, like a punishment.

What is Operant Conditioning?

Operant conditioning was built on Thorndike’s Law of Effect (1898), which says behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are repeated, and those followed by discomforting ones are avoided. This idea was later developed by B.F. Skinner, who formalized operant conditioning through lab experiments with animals including rats and pigeons.

Unlike classical conditioning, where the stimulus comes first, operant conditioning starts with a behavior — the consequence comes after and affects whether that behavior will happen again.

Reinforcement + Punishment

Operant conditioning uses two main tools: reinforcement (to increase behavior) and punishment (to decrease behavior). Each can be positive (adding something) or negative (removing something).

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a reward to increase behavior (ie. praise for doing homework)
• Negative reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior (ie., seatbelt alarm stops when you buckle in)
• Positive punishment: Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior (ie. detention for misbehaving)
• Negative punishment: Taking away something pleasant to decrease behavior (ie.losing phone privileges)

When no consequence follows a behavior, the behavior could gradually cease. This is known as extinction. But extinction doesn’t mean the behavior is unlearned — it can return if reinforcement starts again, known as spontaneous recovery.

Skinner’s Box: How Behavior is Learned

Skinner’s experiments used rats and pigeons in special boxes equipped with levers, food dispensers, and sometimes even electric floors.

In one setup, a hungry rat learned to press a lever to get food. This was positive reinforcement — a reward strengthened the behavior. In another, pressing the lever stopped an electric shock, which was negative reinforcement — removing something unpleasant also increased behavior.

Skinner found that the way reinforcement is given matters. If a reward is given every time, the behavior is learned quickly but also disappears quickly. If rewards are given less predictably (called partial reinforcement), the behavior becomes more resistant to extinction — this is how habits and addictions can form.

Operant vs Classical Conditioning

While both explain learning, the order of events is reversed.

• In classical conditioning, the stimulus (ie. bell) comes first and triggers a response (ie. salivation)
• In operant conditioning, the behavior comes first, and the consequence (reward or punishment) determines whether it’s repeated

Classical conditioning explains reflexive or emotional responses; operant conditioning explains voluntary, goal-directed actions.

Concepts

• Researcher Bias: Most studies are lab-based, designed by behaviorists who assume external rewards control behavior. This may overlook internal factors like motivation or emotion
• Causality: Strong cause-effect logic (behavior → consequence → behavior change), but real-world behavior is influenced by unseen factors like beliefs, emotions, or social norms
• Perspective: Based on the behaviorist view that mental processes (the “black box”) don’t matter. This limits understanding of human decisions, morality, and conscious choice
• Measurement: Measures only observable behavior, making results easy to quantify. But ignores subjective factors like intention, meaning the why behind behavior is missed
• Change: Learning is defined as lasting behavior change, but extinction and spontaneous recovery show change may be unstable or reversible without consistent reinforcement
• Responsibility: Assumes behavior can be externally controlled, raising ethical concerns. Overuse in institutions (e.g. prisons, classrooms) can reduce autonomy and free will

Read here for more on Classical Conditioning
See here for more on concepts